Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior, according to the American Psychological Association. Psychology is a multifaceted discipline and includes many sub-fields of study such areas as human development, sports, health, clinical, social behavior and cognitive processes.
Psychology is a new science, with most advances happening over the past 150 years. However, its origins can be traced back to ancient Greece, 400 – 500 BC.
The emphasis was a philosophical one, with great thinkers such as Socrates (470 BC – 399 BC) influencing Plato (428/427 BC – 348/347 BC), who in turn influenced Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC).
Philosophers used to discuss many topics now studied by modern psychology, such as memory, free will vs. determinism, nature vs. nurture, attraction, etc.
Psychology is a vast and multifaceted field. Over time, as our understanding of the human mind and behavior has expanded, various specialized areas or branches of psychology have emerged, such as clinical psychology, social psychology, and developmental psychology.
The Beginnings of Psychology as a Discipline
In the early days of psychology, there were two dominant theoretical perspectives regarding how the brain worked, structuralism and functionalism.
Structuralism was the name given to the approach pioneered by Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), which focused on breaking down mental processes intro the most basic components.
The term originated from Edward Titchener, an American psychologist who had been trained by Wundt. Wundt was important because he separated psychology from philosophy by analyzing the workings of the mind in a more structured way, with the emphasis being on objective measurement and control.
Structuralism relied on trained introspection, a research method whereby subjects related what was going on in their minds while performing a certain task.
However, introspection proved to be an unreliable method because there was too much individual variation in the experiences and reports of research subjects.
Despite the failure of introspection Wundt is an important figure in the history of psychology as he opened the first laboratory dedicated to psychology in 1879, and its opening is usually thought of as the beginning of modern experimental psychology.
An American psychologist named William James (1842-1910) developed an approach which came to be known as functionalism, that disagreed with the focus of Structuralism.
James argued that the mind is constantly changing and it is pointless to look for the structure of conscious experience. Rather, he proposed the focus should be on how and why an organism does something, i.e. the functions or purpose of the brain.
James suggested that psychologists should look for the underlying cause of behavior and the mental processes involved. This emphasis on the causes and consequences of behavior has influenced contemporary psychology.
The Perspectives of Psychology
Structuralism and functionalism have since been replaced by several dominant and influential approaches to psychology, each underpinned by a shared set of assumptions of what people are like, what is important to study, and how to study it.
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Behavioral Perspective: Emerging around the 1910s and 1920s with John Watson’s work, it gained prominence with B.F. Skinner in the 1930s and 1940s. This perspective emphasizes observable behaviors and the environment’s role.
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Psychodynamic Perspective: Developed in the early 1900s with the work of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), emphasizing the unconscious mind and early experiences. Freud’s psychoanalysis was the original psychodynamic theory, but the psychodynamic approach as a whole includes all theories that were based on his ideas, e.g., Jung (1964), Adler (1927), and Erikson (1950).
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Humanistic Perspective: Emerged in the 1950s and 1960s as a reaction to behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are primary figures.
- Cognitive Perspective: Became prominent around the 1950s and 1960s as a response to behaviorism. Key figures include Jean Piaget and Aaron Beck.
- Biological Perspective: While physiological psychology dates back to early experimental psychology, the more integrative biological/neuroscientific perspective emphasizing genetics and brain structures became dominant in the latter part of the 20th century.
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Evolutionary Perspective: While Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory dates to the 19th century, its application to psychology as an “evolutionary psychology” perspective gained traction in the 1980s and 1990s.
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Sociocultural Perspective: Gained prominence in the latter half of the 20th century, emphasizing the influence of social interactions, cultural practices, and environmental contexts on individual behavior and cognitive processes.
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Ecological Systems Perspective: Introduced by Urie Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s, this perspective examines the multi-layered influences on an individual’s development.
The Goals of Psychology
The four main goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict and change the behavior and mental processes of others
To Describe
Describing a behavior or cognition is the first goal of psychology. This can enable researchers to develop general laws of human behavior.
For example, by describing the response of dogs to various stimuli, Ivan Pavlov helped develop laws of learning known as classical conditioning theory.
To Explain
Once researchers have described general laws behavior, the next step is to explain how or why this trend occurs. Psychologists will propose theories which can explain a behavior.
To Predict
Psychology aims to be able to predict future behavior from the findings of empirical research. If a prediction is not confirmed, then the explanation it is based on might need to be revised.
For example, classical conditioning predicts that if a person associates a negative outcome with a stimuli they may develop a phobia or aversion of the stimuli.
To Change
Once psychology has described, explained and made predictions about behavior, changing or controlling a behavior can be attempted.
For example, interventions based on classical conditioning, such as systematic desensitization, have been used to treat people with anxiety disorders including phobias.
Critical Evaluation
Kuhn (1962) argues that a field of study can only legitimately be regarded as a science if most of its followers subscribe to a common perspective or paradigm.
Kuhn believes that psychology is still pre-paradigmatic, while others believe it’s already experienced scientific revolutions (Wundt’s structuralism being replaced by Watson’s behaviorism, in turn, replaced by the information-processing approach).
The crucial point here is: can psychology be considered a science if psychologists disagree about what to study and how to study it?
Frequently Asked Questions
What are some of the major subfields within psychology?
Major branches of psychology include clinical, developmental, social, cognitive, neuroscience, and educational psychology. They study mental health, development, social interaction, cognition, brain function, and learning.
What is the difference between a psychologist and a psychiatrist?
Psychologists and psychiatrists both work in the mental health field, but their training and approach differ.
Psychologists typically hold a doctoral degree in psychology and provide therapy, conduct research, and administer psychological tests.
Psychiatrists are medical doctors who specialize in mental health and can prescribe medication to manage mental health conditions. They often work with more complex cases and those requiring medication management.
How do researchers in psychology gather and analyze data?
Researchers in psychology gather and analyze data using a variety of methods such as surveys, observations, experiments, and case studies.
They use statistical analysis to identify patterns and relationships in the data and draw conclusions. Some researchers also use brain imaging techniques to study the neural basis of behavior.
Ethical considerations are taken into account when conducting research with human or animal participants. The results of research are often published in academic journals to advance knowledge in the field.
How is psychology used in everyday life?
Psychology can help you in your everyday life by improving your communication skills, relationships, and ability to manage stress. It can also be used to make better decisions in school, healthcare, and work, and improve your mental health and well-being.
By learning about psychology, you can understand people and the world around you better and use that knowledge to improve your own life and the lives of others.
What is reverse psychology?
Reverse psychology is a persuasion technique where an individual encourages another person to adopt a certain behavior or attitude by suggesting the opposite, often because they anticipate a resistant or contrary response.
It’s essentially a method of getting someone to do what you want by suggesting they do the opposite.
